Korea has suffered from food shortages for a long time and, in the 1960s, began to promote food self-sufficiency as a national policy. In particular, through R&D in the agricultural sector, the dissemination of new technologies, and the establishment of infrastructure and supply systems, Korea was able to achieve 100% self-sufficiency in rice by the late 1970s, accomplishing a Green Revolution. This was made possible by the development dissemination of Tongil-Type high-yielding rice varieties, which significantly increased productivity and transformed Korea’s agricultural practices.
#development #agriculture #green revolution
Korea has 5,000 years of long-standing history, overcoming tremendous invasion by foreign country and trials, created splendid heritage, however, could not free from the shackles of food shortages. Therefore, for Korean to increase the volume of food production was long cherished-wish. Started from the early 1960s, Korea set out National Economic Development Plan which pursues national economy should begin with self-sufficiency in food. Under the strong leadership of president, food self-sufficiency was one of the major challenges of state affairs, so policy to increase food productivity was actively promoted at the government level. As a result of these tireless efforts, Korea could finally achieve 100 % of self-sufficiency in rice which is a main staple in Korea since in the late 1970s. We have achieved the green revolution in Korea by ourselves.
Self-sufficiency in rice has been accomplished with R&D in agricultural sector and new technology transfer system such as increased rice productivity through improved rice varieties and development of cultivation technologies, dissemination new technologies to farmers in a swift manner. All of the factors were harmonized. In addition, these are also possible thanks to firm government policy will and practice on providing rice production infrastructure including facilities, flexible production and supply of rice production materials including fertilizers and chemical pesticides.
In the mid 1970s, there was desperate need to secure investment resources on National Economic Development Plan, the annual per capita income of Korea was 200 dollars to 300 dollars and total export volume was 10 billion dollars, but at this critical juncture, Korea could achieve self-sufficiency in rice. This became a cornerstone to strengthen the basis of national economic development not only for securing food security, boost farm household's income but also for saving foreign currency required to import foreign rice.
The comprehensive work of rice variety improvement was initiated with a systematic collection of native rice varieties and their pure-line selections followed by exotic introductions and their adaptability tests during the early period of 20th century. These were replaced by domestic-bred varieties through hybridization within the traditional temperate japonica varieties since the late 1930s. During 1970s, the indica and japonica types were hybridized and Tongil types were developed with a view to achieve Green Revolution in Korea.
Tongil type is designated from “Tongil”, the first variety developed from a selection from hybridization between indica and japonica in 1971.
It was selected from the progeny of IR667, which was derived by 3-way cross (IR8//Yukara/Taichung Native 1) and released to the farmers in 1972. Afterwards, improved Tongil type varieties like Milyang 23, Geumgang, Raekyeong, etc. were released that rapidly increased the area under their cultivation. The acreage reached 76.2 percent of the total rice area in 1977, resulting in Green Revolution in Korea. Forty varieties of Tongil type rice were developed and cultivated during 1970s and 1980s. Successful cultivation of Tongil type rice varieties opened not only a new milestone for future improvement of rice varieties but also offered a practical opportunity to utilize indica germplasm in temperate environments. Major characteristics of Tongil type rice varieties were short stature in their plant architecture with erect leaves, high yield potential, tolerant to heavy doses of nitrogen and lodging and resistance to major diseases and insect pests, particularly more or less neutral responses to photoperiod and longer period of basic vegetative stage of rice growth. However, there were some shortcomings too such as susceptibility to low temperature, easy shattering of grains and unacceptability of grain quality and palatability to Korean consumers.
The milled rice yield potential of rice varieties that were domestic-bred by hybridization and were first cultivated in the late 1930s, progressed to 4.06~4.57 MT/ha for the leading varieties such as Palkweng, Jinheung and Palgeum by 1970 and greatly increased to 3.3 MT/ha as the national average on the farmers’ field due to improvement of both varieties and cultural practices and to 3.7 million MT/ha for total production. Although productivity of rice varieties increased significantly by the 1960s, it was still behind in meeting self-sufficiency in rice production as a staple food crop in Korea.
The development of “Tongil” rice variety, the first variety derived from indica/japonica hybridization in 1971, lifted up milled rice productivity to 5.13 MT/ha which was 28 percent higher than that of the best japonica rice variety at that time. The productivity of subsequent Tongil type varieties steadily increased to 5.76 MT/ha for Milyang 23 in 1976 and 6.05 MT/ha for Yongmubyeo in 1985. The national average of milled rice yield in the farmer’s field dramatically increased to 4.93 MT/ha ranging 4.37~5.53 MT/ha in 1977 as compared with japonica varieties yielding 3.37~4.69 MT/ha of milled rice. Total rice production reached 4.67 million MT in 1976 which was the first self-sufficiency of rice in Korea, and 5.21 million MT in 1977 and 6.01 million MT in 1978 which was the first time to exceed 5 million MT of rice production in the history, resulting in a significant achievement for green revolution in Korea.
The modern techniques of rice cultural practices were systematically established with hand transplanting after the foundation of the first public organization of agricultural research station in Korea in the early 20th century (1906), and has developed into the present scientific system after the Liberation from Japan in 1945 along with the intensive research works. Particularly, the technology of rice cultural practices has been greatly advanced by the cultivation of Tongil type rice varieties since the early 1970’s because of some different ecological responses from japonica varieties. Tongil type rice varieties showed the relatively longer basic vegetative growth with more or less neutral response to photoperiod as compared with traditional temperate japonica, and needed relatively higher temperature during the growth stage of grain ripening in the Korean situations of climates.
The history of the development in cultural practice technologies for high yield in Korea can be mainly classified as before and after 1970. Between 1950 and 1960s, although high yield techniques for Japonica rice with tall height had been substantially improved, a limit was presented in terms of increasing the actual yield performance in farmers field, resulted in increasing the yield potential of 5 ton per ha when it was first released, which was compared to 3.5 ton per ha of the best japonica.
In phenotypic perspective, Tongil-type rice had an advantage of being close to the ideotype for rice which is counted as an important trait for high yield potential; short-statured and erected-leaf type with heavy-panicle weight, better responses to high nitrogen fertilizer and dense planting, which is securing the number of spikelets per unit area as sink for increasing yield. However, Tongil-type rice carried several disadvantages mainly due to its cold sensitivity derived from Indica germplasm in physiology aspect, as well. These flaws in Tongil-type rice caused discoloration in seedling nursery, growth retard of root age and growth at the early stage of paddy field, and increased infertility caused by spikelet-sterility type cold injury outbreak after a reduction in the division stage, poor ripening from excess number of spikelets in the late ripening stage. In addition, there were difficulties in increasing the yield from the low soil fertility level on the Korean paddy soil. To improve and make up the downsides, the research projects practiced to maximize the four yield components, such as the number of panicles per area, the number of spikelets per panicle, the percentage of ripened grains and 1000 grain weight of brown rice in a balanced manner.
In order to secure the sufficient number of panicles per unit area, it fostered healthy seeding; transplanted proper density; facilitated tillering by applying both basal fertilizer and topdressing at tillering stage; secured the sufficient number of effective tillering to avoid non-productive tiller at the early stage by mid-summer drainage in paddy fields. The technique by which ear manuring and top dressing were applied to paddy fields in a timely manner was developed to increase the percentage of ripened grains for the effective number of grains per panicle. Also, manure, silicate, soil dressing, and deep plowing were applied to enhance the fertility and physical structure of paddy soil. Rice was planted based on a region specific weather condition at a right moment to reduce the risks at natural disasters such as outbreak of disease and insects, lodging, and freezing, since those may occur frequently under the high fertilization and dense planting condition.
By successful disseminating this high yield techniques, from 1973 to 1987, for 15 years, the national average yield on rice for Tongil-type rice surpassed that of Japonica by 17%, 4.71 ton per ha and 4.03 ton per ha respectively. The high yield farm’s productivity (8.94 ton) increased by 2.22 times compared to that of Japonica (4.03 ton), and by 1.9 times higher than that of Tongil-type rice.
Even during 1960s, people experienced a shortage in their food and struggled for poverty and hunger, repeating the spring poverty period periodically. With a cooperation between the government and farmers, they achieved so-called the Green Revolution in 1970s to cope with these problems, overcoming both hunger and poverty from the success in self-sufficiency of staple grains.
The Office of Rural Development (ORD, currently RDA) is an entity where research and extension activities are executed as one organization within the agency so that they can provide new varieties and new technologies to the farmers promptly through 9 Provincial ORD and 150 office of agricultural extension in cities and counties across the country. While they identify any difficulties occurring in the field during the extension activities, those problems are reflected on research activities in the related research institute to solve the problems simultaneously.
Transferring New Techniques was Carried Out for the Tongil-Type Variety at an Individual Farm
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Extension specialists from ORD focused on disseminating new technologies to make farmers informed on the newly bred high yield variety, Tongil rice, whose characteristics were quite different from that of tall Japonica species, by themselves and to choose the variety based on their own preferences. The extension specialists provided new technologies on high yield through Saemaul (new village) farm technology education program to farmers, as well as spread the information on new technologies through newspaper, TV, radio, and amplifier broadcast in the village in agricultural- off season in winter.
During the farm season, ORD released forecast information on disease and insect so that farmers respond to the situations adroitly, and agricultural extension specialists at the front line visited farms of which they were in charge to provide field extension and participated in rice production technology support group to solve the problems occurring in the farm field.
Also, they allocated their time for executing each agricultural practice such as workloads movement, rice transplanting and harvesting, deliver of the policy for responsible area of Tongil-type rice, and operating of food increase production situation room to carry out the instruction described in letters, prints, and other media. The competition for high yield was awarded to encourage farmers so that they are motivated to increase productivity. The indirect supports from the administrative such as the rice-saving movement make conserving rice feasible.
By the series of numerous effort and contribution, they could achieve the goal in rice self-sufficiency with availability of new technologies to farmers under "research-extension-dissemination linkage system" from ORD.
In 1977, it was reported that Tongil-type rice took account for 54.6%, which is equivalent to 600,101 ha of the entire farm land since it had been first introduced back in 1971. This effective linkage system was nominated for the best manage system in the world by FAO with 5 other countries such as the U.S. and the Great Britain in 1984.
What Were the Achievements and Impacts of Korea’s Green Revolution
The green revolution was able to achieve not only rice self-sufficiency in Korea but increased farm household income as well. Before 1973, the farm household income was lower than that of the urban worker's household but after achieving production of 30 million seoks of rice in 1974, the farmer surpassed the urban laborer due to the high contribution of the rapidly expanded area of the new rice varieties.
In line with the increase of rice production by means of expanded cultivation of newly developed varieties, the volume of governmental purchases of rice has continuously expanded to a level capable of a steady growth of farmers' earnings along with stimulation of farmers' incentive for increased production.
Rice self-sufficiency has played a great role not only in stabilizing food supplies in Korea but also saving foreign exchange in and contributing to economic growth and strengthening national power enabling confident and active implementation of national policies and creating hope for the future.
The increase of farm household income due to the expanded cultivation of the new rice varieties has played the role not only of increasing farm assets, but also of raising the living quality in rural regions. The increase of farm household income allowed the farmers to lessen the debts and to make funds for re-investment to agriculture.
Increasing rice production resulted in a change in the rice consumption pattern in Korea. Previously rice saving policies prevailed : use of 70% polished rice for cooking, cooking rice mixed with other grains, and prohibition of using rice for brewing, etc. These policies have become obsolete and a rice consumption promotion program has been undertaken.
The expansion of the seed bed technologies brought a number of alternative benefits such as more production due to early transplanting and harvest, the possibility of planting barley in paddy fields after the rice harvest, reducing labor competition during the busy seasons, the careful treatment of rice plants and an expansion of the barley planted area. The earliness of the new rice varieties also enabled the vegetable cultivation in areas near the cities, which contributed greatly to farm management improvement. The group farming in rice cultivation was the momentum for the cooperative production of foundation of joint utilization of farm machinery as well as joint purchase of farm materials and joint marketing of farm products. It played a core role in rural community development by making cooperation possible in every detail of farming.
1. Factors contributing to accelerating the green revolution in Korea
In 1968, Korea succeeded in developing a high-yielding rice variety, later called 'Tongil', and thereafter many varieties with spread of Tongil type varieties to farmers in early 1970s. As a result, Korea attained self-sufficiency in rice, called 'Green Revolution in Korea' in 1977. There were several factors contributed to the green revolution.
① Efficient Breeding system
The success of varietal improvement is greatly rely on the efficiency of the breeding systems for testing and selection of breeding materials. In early 1970s the research institutes covering all the country were set up and functioned well to development of the new rice varieties in Korea.
② International cooperation
In close collaboration with the agricultural college and IRRI, RDA was able to make use of their talent, facilities and technical information in the process of breeding new varieties. Formation of such a cooperative system has laid a strong foundation on which agricultural technology can be continuously developed. In order to distribute the newly hybridized varieties to farmers as soon as possible, segregation materials were shipped to the Philippines for multiplication during the winter season. The seeds multiplied were immediately flown back to Korea early the next year. By doing so, rice self-sufficiency was able to be realized earlier than expected.
③ An exclusive extension services
Farm training in the winter season : Technical farm training was widely conducted during the winter season so that farmers would be able to obtain the technologies for high yield by through understandings of the special traits of the new Tongil type varieties. Since 1971, when the pilot planting was begun, a series of intensive technical farm training sessions were conducted during the winter season for three months from December to March of the following year not only for those farmers who planted the newly developed varieties but also for those who had not yet attempted to grow them.
Farm training by mass media : Farm technical training by means of radio and TV services has been very active and most effective thanks to the cooperation of the radio and TV stations providing time for farm programs.
Accountable field guidances : Field guidance agents persuading farmers to grow the new varieties risked severe criticism when the farmers experienced even a slight crop failure with the new varieties. Therefore, in order to reduce chances of crop failure, they were fully occupied with unceasing field guidance from seedbed preparation through harvest, and even assisted with marketing, as if the farms were their own. It was not unusual for all the research and guidance agents serving across the nation to be unable to enjoy their rightful summer vacation or even Sunday off due to their extraordinarily overwhelming workload. the green revolution is to a great degree ascribable to their noble sacrifice.
Distribution of agricultural information : On each Saturday, a special radio program was issued on the following week's weather forecast, including an outline of the week's farm work and other farm information so that farmers could prepare for the farm works. Information on plant diseases and insect pests was also broadcasted every Friday from March to September.
④ Importance of Leadership
The President, Park, emphasized the achievement of food self-sufficiency through varietal improvement for three years from 1970 to 1972 and also he expected endless efforts from research and extension workers for the development of new varieties and dissemination of new technologies to farmers. He said, for example, "AT first, increase in food production! We import a great deal of food at present time, but we must reduce food import by increasing food production. At least we should achieve self-sufficiency in rice(in the new year`s press conference, 1974)" He showed great concern and gave strong support to achieve the self-sufficiency in rice through the development of new rice varieties and immediate dissemination of them to farmers.
⑤ Governmental strong recommendation and administrative supports
The systematic and unwavering support of the government was most influential factors contributing to the green revolution.
Governmental purchasing policy was a very powerful factor : The government induced growers to adopt Tongil type varieties by setting the government's purchasing prices higher than market prices. Beginning in the early 1970s, the government substantially raised the government price for rice every year. Under the government purchase program, real prices rose 5.7% annually between 1969 and 1979. In line with increases of rice production the volume of government purchases of rice has continuously expanded to a level capable of accommodating as much as farmers wish to sell.
Government's strong recommendation : To enhance the adoption of the new rice varieties, a target level of adoption was assigned to local government officials as well as each extension worker in the provinces. The adoption of Tongil type varieties tied to the officials' and extension workers' ability to get promoted. With strong 'persuasion' from the government, Tongil type rice varieties were planted in 76.2% of all rice cultivated area by 1978.
The administrative support of timely supply of the inputs for rice production : Increases in rice production could not have been obtained except for the timely and sufficient supply of fertilizers, agricultural chemicals, vinyl and other materials for seedbeds.
Prize awards to high yielding farms : As an incentive to induce the adoption of Tongil and Tongil type varieties and to increase their productivity, an award was given to the growers who produced the highest yield. The award was given to all growers whose yields as milled rice were over 6 tons/ha. To those growers, 100,000 won(ca. 250 dollars) was given as a prize. In addition to the awards for individual growers, there was another award for the joint cultivation districts. For the districts whose average yields were the highest in the country, one million won(ca. 2,500 dollars) was awarded, and for those with the second highest yield, 500 thousand won(ca. 1,200 dollars) was awarded.
2. Lessons
Among the factors contributing to the green revolution in Korea, the most influencing factor was the systematic and unwavering support of the Korean government. In particular, the interest of President Park in self-sufficiency in rice is known as influenced greatly to the achievement of green revolution in Korea. From the end of the 1960s to the early 1970s, the industrial development of a few areas on which the government concentrated available financial resources began to lead the industries in the sectors. The agricultural sector was awakened and funded substantially for construction of agricultural infra-structure like as agricultural water resources, irrigation systems, land reclamation, and consolidation of farmland to build the basis for improvement of agricultural productivity. The governmental policies to supply appropriately of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers and agro-chemicals for crop protection from disease and insect pests contributed greatly to the achievement of self-sufficiency in rice.
The Rural Development Administration(RDA) was founded in 1962 for implementation of agricultural policies on development and dissemination of agricultural technology. The fact that RDA had both functions of managing agricultural research works and extension services under one umbrella could make it possible to disseminate very quickly and efficiently the newly developed technologies from the research institutes to farmers and to accept the feedback from the extension services to the related institutes, and to brought the green revolution earlier than expected.
Through breeding a new variety by using a strategy involving a 3-way cross of Indica and Japonica types, which had long been ignored as being of little practical value, a miraculously high-yielding variety, Tongil, has been developed. Since then, several new Tongil type varieties possessing better characteristics, have been continuously developed. The rapid disseminations of the newly developed varieties and improved cultural practices to the farmers were the core factors to the Korean green revolution.
In close collaboration with the agricultural college and IRRI, RDA was able to make use of their talent, facilities and technical information in the process of breeding new varieties. Formation of such a cooperative system has laid a strong foundation on which agricultural technology can be continuously developed. In order to distribute the newly hybridized varieties to farmers as soon as possible, segregation materials were shipped to the Philippines for multiplication during the winter season. The seeds multiplied were immediately flown back to Korea early the next year. By doing so, extensive dissemination of the new varieties become shortened by one year, but rice self-sufficiency was able to be realized earlier than expected.
3. Adaptability of the Korea's experience in Green Revolution to developing countries
The agricultural policies and experiences in achieving the green revolution in Korea are surely helpful to the developing countries which are still suffering from the food shortages in Africa or Asia. Our agricultural system will be rather well applicable to those countries that have small-scaled agricultural systems. The Experiences and knowledge obtained from the innovation of agricultural technology in Korea will be a good model for the developing countries in the world.
The financial resource is also the most important factor for the innovation of agriculture as same in other industrial sectors. There can be suggested two models for the developing countries to achieve the agricultural innovation and to solve the food shortage problem through increase in food production.
The countries that have some capabilities to invest in agricultural sectors are able to build the basis for innovation of agricultural productivity within a short period. Meanwhile, the countries that have no financial resources except agricultural sectors would maximize the financial resources by the mobilization of domestic resource and aids from abroad, and concentrate the resources on some targeted areas within agricultural sectors at first. The targeted areas would be developed and have the competitiveness gradually by implementation of technology enhancement and financial supports. With the successful performance in the targeted areas, advanced technologies and available funds can be shared with the food security areas.
In either case of the two models, governmental investment on agricultural sector with national leader's firm conviction, building the basis of infrastructures for agricultural production, the organization with an efficient operation system for development of new technologies and spread of them rapidly to farm, and the close cooperation system with the related institutions of home and abroad are needed for the successful achievement of green revolution through the expansion of food production. But most of all, farmer's consciousness and national consensus would be prerequisite for achievement of the green revolution.
Korea has suffered from food shortages for a long time and, in the 1960s, began to promote food self-sufficiency as a national policy. In particular, through R&D in the agricultural sector, the dissemination of new technologies, and the establishment of infrastructure and supply systems, Korea was able to achieve 100% self-sufficiency in rice by the late 1970s, accomplishing a Green Revolution. This was made possible by the development dissemination of Tongil-Type high-yielding rice varieties, which significantly increased productivity and transformed Korea’s agricultural practices.
#development #agriculture #green revolution
Korea has 5,000 years of long-standing history, overcoming tremendous invasion by foreign country and trials, created splendid heritage, however, could not free from the shackles of food shortages. Therefore, for Korean to increase the volume of food production was long cherished-wish. Started from the early 1960s, Korea set out National Economic Development Plan which pursues national economy should begin with self-sufficiency in food. Under the strong leadership of president, food self-sufficiency was one of the major challenges of state affairs, so policy to increase food productivity was actively promoted at the government level. As a result of these tireless efforts, Korea could finally achieve 100 % of self-sufficiency in rice which is a main staple in Korea since in the late 1970s. We have achieved the green revolution in Korea by ourselves.
Self-sufficiency in rice has been accomplished with R&D in agricultural sector and new technology transfer system such as increased rice productivity through improved rice varieties and development of cultivation technologies, dissemination new technologies to farmers in a swift manner. All of the factors were harmonized. In addition, these are also possible thanks to firm government policy will and practice on providing rice production infrastructure including facilities, flexible production and supply of rice production materials including fertilizers and chemical pesticides.
In the mid 1970s, there was desperate need to secure investment resources on National Economic Development Plan, the annual per capita income of Korea was 200 dollars to 300 dollars and total export volume was 10 billion dollars, but at this critical juncture, Korea could achieve self-sufficiency in rice. This became a cornerstone to strengthen the basis of national economic development not only for securing food security, boost farm household's income but also for saving foreign currency required to import foreign rice.
The comprehensive work of rice variety improvement was initiated with a systematic collection of native rice varieties and their pure-line selections followed by exotic introductions and their adaptability tests during the early period of 20th century. These were replaced by domestic-bred varieties through hybridization within the traditional temperate japonica varieties since the late 1930s. During 1970s, the indica and japonica types were hybridized and Tongil types were developed with a view to achieve Green Revolution in Korea.
Tongil type is designated from “Tongil”, the first variety developed from a selection from hybridization between indica and japonica in 1971.
It was selected from the progeny of IR667, which was derived by 3-way cross (IR8//Yukara/Taichung Native 1) and released to the farmers in 1972. Afterwards, improved Tongil type varieties like Milyang 23, Geumgang, Raekyeong, etc. were released that rapidly increased the area under their cultivation. The acreage reached 76.2 percent of the total rice area in 1977, resulting in Green Revolution in Korea. Forty varieties of Tongil type rice were developed and cultivated during 1970s and 1980s. Successful cultivation of Tongil type rice varieties opened not only a new milestone for future improvement of rice varieties but also offered a practical opportunity to utilize indica germplasm in temperate environments. Major characteristics of Tongil type rice varieties were short stature in their plant architecture with erect leaves, high yield potential, tolerant to heavy doses of nitrogen and lodging and resistance to major diseases and insect pests, particularly more or less neutral responses to photoperiod and longer period of basic vegetative stage of rice growth. However, there were some shortcomings too such as susceptibility to low temperature, easy shattering of grains and unacceptability of grain quality and palatability to Korean consumers.
The milled rice yield potential of rice varieties that were domestic-bred by hybridization and were first cultivated in the late 1930s, progressed to 4.06~4.57 MT/ha for the leading varieties such as Palkweng, Jinheung and Palgeum by 1970 and greatly increased to 3.3 MT/ha as the national average on the farmers’ field due to improvement of both varieties and cultural practices and to 3.7 million MT/ha for total production. Although productivity of rice varieties increased significantly by the 1960s, it was still behind in meeting self-sufficiency in rice production as a staple food crop in Korea.
The development of “Tongil” rice variety, the first variety derived from indica/japonica hybridization in 1971, lifted up milled rice productivity to 5.13 MT/ha which was 28 percent higher than that of the best japonica rice variety at that time. The productivity of subsequent Tongil type varieties steadily increased to 5.76 MT/ha for Milyang 23 in 1976 and 6.05 MT/ha for Yongmubyeo in 1985. The national average of milled rice yield in the farmer’s field dramatically increased to 4.93 MT/ha ranging 4.37~5.53 MT/ha in 1977 as compared with japonica varieties yielding 3.37~4.69 MT/ha of milled rice. Total rice production reached 4.67 million MT in 1976 which was the first self-sufficiency of rice in Korea, and 5.21 million MT in 1977 and 6.01 million MT in 1978 which was the first time to exceed 5 million MT of rice production in the history, resulting in a significant achievement for green revolution in Korea.
The modern techniques of rice cultural practices were systematically established with hand transplanting after the foundation of the first public organization of agricultural research station in Korea in the early 20th century (1906), and has developed into the present scientific system after the Liberation from Japan in 1945 along with the intensive research works. Particularly, the technology of rice cultural practices has been greatly advanced by the cultivation of Tongil type rice varieties since the early 1970’s because of some different ecological responses from japonica varieties. Tongil type rice varieties showed the relatively longer basic vegetative growth with more or less neutral response to photoperiod as compared with traditional temperate japonica, and needed relatively higher temperature during the growth stage of grain ripening in the Korean situations of climates.
The history of the development in cultural practice technologies for high yield in Korea can be mainly classified as before and after 1970. Between 1950 and 1960s, although high yield techniques for Japonica rice with tall height had been substantially improved, a limit was presented in terms of increasing the actual yield performance in farmers field, resulted in increasing the yield potential of 5 ton per ha when it was first released, which was compared to 3.5 ton per ha of the best japonica.
In phenotypic perspective, Tongil-type rice had an advantage of being close to the ideotype for rice which is counted as an important trait for high yield potential; short-statured and erected-leaf type with heavy-panicle weight, better responses to high nitrogen fertilizer and dense planting, which is securing the number of spikelets per unit area as sink for increasing yield. However, Tongil-type rice carried several disadvantages mainly due to its cold sensitivity derived from Indica germplasm in physiology aspect, as well. These flaws in Tongil-type rice caused discoloration in seedling nursery, growth retard of root age and growth at the early stage of paddy field, and increased infertility caused by spikelet-sterility type cold injury outbreak after a reduction in the division stage, poor ripening from excess number of spikelets in the late ripening stage. In addition, there were difficulties in increasing the yield from the low soil fertility level on the Korean paddy soil. To improve and make up the downsides, the research projects practiced to maximize the four yield components, such as the number of panicles per area, the number of spikelets per panicle, the percentage of ripened grains and 1000 grain weight of brown rice in a balanced manner.
In order to secure the sufficient number of panicles per unit area, it fostered healthy seeding; transplanted proper density; facilitated tillering by applying both basal fertilizer and topdressing at tillering stage; secured the sufficient number of effective tillering to avoid non-productive tiller at the early stage by mid-summer drainage in paddy fields. The technique by which ear manuring and top dressing were applied to paddy fields in a timely manner was developed to increase the percentage of ripened grains for the effective number of grains per panicle. Also, manure, silicate, soil dressing, and deep plowing were applied to enhance the fertility and physical structure of paddy soil. Rice was planted based on a region specific weather condition at a right moment to reduce the risks at natural disasters such as outbreak of disease and insects, lodging, and freezing, since those may occur frequently under the high fertilization and dense planting condition.
By successful disseminating this high yield techniques, from 1973 to 1987, for 15 years, the national average yield on rice for Tongil-type rice surpassed that of Japonica by 17%, 4.71 ton per ha and 4.03 ton per ha respectively. The high yield farm’s productivity (8.94 ton) increased by 2.22 times compared to that of Japonica (4.03 ton), and by 1.9 times higher than that of Tongil-type rice.
Even during 1960s, people experienced a shortage in their food and struggled for poverty and hunger, repeating the spring poverty period periodically. With a cooperation between the government and farmers, they achieved so-called the Green Revolution in 1970s to cope with these problems, overcoming both hunger and poverty from the success in self-sufficiency of staple grains.
The Office of Rural Development (ORD, currently RDA) is an entity where research and extension activities are executed as one organization within the agency so that they can provide new varieties and new technologies to the farmers promptly through 9 Provincial ORD and 150 office of agricultural extension in cities and counties across the country. While they identify any difficulties occurring in the field during the extension activities, those problems are reflected on research activities in the related research institute to solve the problems simultaneously.
Transferring New Techniques was Carried Out for the Tongil-Type Variety at an Individual Farm
Extension specialists from ORD focused on disseminating new technologies to make farmers informed on the newly bred high yield variety, Tongil rice, whose characteristics were quite different from that of tall Japonica species, by themselves and to choose the variety based on their own preferences. The extension specialists provided new technologies on high yield through Saemaul (new village) farm technology education program to farmers, as well as spread the information on new technologies through newspaper, TV, radio, and amplifier broadcast in the village in agricultural- off season in winter.
During the farm season, ORD released forecast information on disease and insect so that farmers respond to the situations adroitly, and agricultural extension specialists at the front line visited farms of which they were in charge to provide field extension and participated in rice production technology support group to solve the problems occurring in the farm field.
Also, they allocated their time for executing each agricultural practice such as workloads movement, rice transplanting and harvesting, deliver of the policy for responsible area of Tongil-type rice, and operating of food increase production situation room to carry out the instruction described in letters, prints, and other media. The competition for high yield was awarded to encourage farmers so that they are motivated to increase productivity. The indirect supports from the administrative such as the rice-saving movement make conserving rice feasible.
By the series of numerous effort and contribution, they could achieve the goal in rice self-sufficiency with availability of new technologies to farmers under "research-extension-dissemination linkage system" from ORD.
In 1977, it was reported that Tongil-type rice took account for 54.6%, which is equivalent to 600,101 ha of the entire farm land since it had been first introduced back in 1971. This effective linkage system was nominated for the best manage system in the world by FAO with 5 other countries such as the U.S. and the Great Britain in 1984.
What Were the Achievements and Impacts of Korea’s Green Revolution
The green revolution was able to achieve not only rice self-sufficiency in Korea but increased farm household income as well. Before 1973, the farm household income was lower than that of the urban worker's household but after achieving production of 30 million seoks of rice in 1974, the farmer surpassed the urban laborer due to the high contribution of the rapidly expanded area of the new rice varieties.
In line with the increase of rice production by means of expanded cultivation of newly developed varieties, the volume of governmental purchases of rice has continuously expanded to a level capable of a steady growth of farmers' earnings along with stimulation of farmers' incentive for increased production.
Rice self-sufficiency has played a great role not only in stabilizing food supplies in Korea but also saving foreign exchange in and contributing to economic growth and strengthening national power enabling confident and active implementation of national policies and creating hope for the future.
The increase of farm household income due to the expanded cultivation of the new rice varieties has played the role not only of increasing farm assets, but also of raising the living quality in rural regions. The increase of farm household income allowed the farmers to lessen the debts and to make funds for re-investment to agriculture.
Increasing rice production resulted in a change in the rice consumption pattern in Korea. Previously rice saving policies prevailed : use of 70% polished rice for cooking, cooking rice mixed with other grains, and prohibition of using rice for brewing, etc. These policies have become obsolete and a rice consumption promotion program has been undertaken.
The expansion of the seed bed technologies brought a number of alternative benefits such as more production due to early transplanting and harvest, the possibility of planting barley in paddy fields after the rice harvest, reducing labor competition during the busy seasons, the careful treatment of rice plants and an expansion of the barley planted area. The earliness of the new rice varieties also enabled the vegetable cultivation in areas near the cities, which contributed greatly to farm management improvement. The group farming in rice cultivation was the momentum for the cooperative production of foundation of joint utilization of farm machinery as well as joint purchase of farm materials and joint marketing of farm products. It played a core role in rural community development by making cooperation possible in every detail of farming.
1. Factors contributing to accelerating the green revolution in Korea
In 1968, Korea succeeded in developing a high-yielding rice variety, later called 'Tongil', and thereafter many varieties with spread of Tongil type varieties to farmers in early 1970s. As a result, Korea attained self-sufficiency in rice, called 'Green Revolution in Korea' in 1977. There were several factors contributed to the green revolution.
① Efficient Breeding system
The success of varietal improvement is greatly rely on the efficiency of the breeding systems for testing and selection of breeding materials. In early 1970s the research institutes covering all the country were set up and functioned well to development of the new rice varieties in Korea.
② International cooperation
In close collaboration with the agricultural college and IRRI, RDA was able to make use of their talent, facilities and technical information in the process of breeding new varieties. Formation of such a cooperative system has laid a strong foundation on which agricultural technology can be continuously developed. In order to distribute the newly hybridized varieties to farmers as soon as possible, segregation materials were shipped to the Philippines for multiplication during the winter season. The seeds multiplied were immediately flown back to Korea early the next year. By doing so, rice self-sufficiency was able to be realized earlier than expected.
③ An exclusive extension services
Farm training in the winter season : Technical farm training was widely conducted during the winter season so that farmers would be able to obtain the technologies for high yield by through understandings of the special traits of the new Tongil type varieties. Since 1971, when the pilot planting was begun, a series of intensive technical farm training sessions were conducted during the winter season for three months from December to March of the following year not only for those farmers who planted the newly developed varieties but also for those who had not yet attempted to grow them.
Farm training by mass media : Farm technical training by means of radio and TV services has been very active and most effective thanks to the cooperation of the radio and TV stations providing time for farm programs.
Accountable field guidances : Field guidance agents persuading farmers to grow the new varieties risked severe criticism when the farmers experienced even a slight crop failure with the new varieties. Therefore, in order to reduce chances of crop failure, they were fully occupied with unceasing field guidance from seedbed preparation through harvest, and even assisted with marketing, as if the farms were their own. It was not unusual for all the research and guidance agents serving across the nation to be unable to enjoy their rightful summer vacation or even Sunday off due to their extraordinarily overwhelming workload. the green revolution is to a great degree ascribable to their noble sacrifice.
Distribution of agricultural information : On each Saturday, a special radio program was issued on the following week's weather forecast, including an outline of the week's farm work and other farm information so that farmers could prepare for the farm works. Information on plant diseases and insect pests was also broadcasted every Friday from March to September.
④ Importance of Leadership
The President, Park, emphasized the achievement of food self-sufficiency through varietal improvement for three years from 1970 to 1972 and also he expected endless efforts from research and extension workers for the development of new varieties and dissemination of new technologies to farmers. He said, for example, "AT first, increase in food production! We import a great deal of food at present time, but we must reduce food import by increasing food production. At least we should achieve self-sufficiency in rice(in the new year`s press conference, 1974)" He showed great concern and gave strong support to achieve the self-sufficiency in rice through the development of new rice varieties and immediate dissemination of them to farmers.
⑤ Governmental strong recommendation and administrative supports
The systematic and unwavering support of the government was most influential factors contributing to the green revolution.
Governmental purchasing policy was a very powerful factor : The government induced growers to adopt Tongil type varieties by setting the government's purchasing prices higher than market prices. Beginning in the early 1970s, the government substantially raised the government price for rice every year. Under the government purchase program, real prices rose 5.7% annually between 1969 and 1979. In line with increases of rice production the volume of government purchases of rice has continuously expanded to a level capable of accommodating as much as farmers wish to sell.
Government's strong recommendation : To enhance the adoption of the new rice varieties, a target level of adoption was assigned to local government officials as well as each extension worker in the provinces. The adoption of Tongil type varieties tied to the officials' and extension workers' ability to get promoted. With strong 'persuasion' from the government, Tongil type rice varieties were planted in 76.2% of all rice cultivated area by 1978.
The administrative support of timely supply of the inputs for rice production : Increases in rice production could not have been obtained except for the timely and sufficient supply of fertilizers, agricultural chemicals, vinyl and other materials for seedbeds.
Prize awards to high yielding farms : As an incentive to induce the adoption of Tongil and Tongil type varieties and to increase their productivity, an award was given to the growers who produced the highest yield. The award was given to all growers whose yields as milled rice were over 6 tons/ha. To those growers, 100,000 won(ca. 250 dollars) was given as a prize. In addition to the awards for individual growers, there was another award for the joint cultivation districts. For the districts whose average yields were the highest in the country, one million won(ca. 2,500 dollars) was awarded, and for those with the second highest yield, 500 thousand won(ca. 1,200 dollars) was awarded.
2. Lessons
Among the factors contributing to the green revolution in Korea, the most influencing factor was the systematic and unwavering support of the Korean government. In particular, the interest of President Park in self-sufficiency in rice is known as influenced greatly to the achievement of green revolution in Korea. From the end of the 1960s to the early 1970s, the industrial development of a few areas on which the government concentrated available financial resources began to lead the industries in the sectors. The agricultural sector was awakened and funded substantially for construction of agricultural infra-structure like as agricultural water resources, irrigation systems, land reclamation, and consolidation of farmland to build the basis for improvement of agricultural productivity. The governmental policies to supply appropriately of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers and agro-chemicals for crop protection from disease and insect pests contributed greatly to the achievement of self-sufficiency in rice.
The Rural Development Administration(RDA) was founded in 1962 for implementation of agricultural policies on development and dissemination of agricultural technology. The fact that RDA had both functions of managing agricultural research works and extension services under one umbrella could make it possible to disseminate very quickly and efficiently the newly developed technologies from the research institutes to farmers and to accept the feedback from the extension services to the related institutes, and to brought the green revolution earlier than expected.
Through breeding a new variety by using a strategy involving a 3-way cross of Indica and Japonica types, which had long been ignored as being of little practical value, a miraculously high-yielding variety, Tongil, has been developed. Since then, several new Tongil type varieties possessing better characteristics, have been continuously developed. The rapid disseminations of the newly developed varieties and improved cultural practices to the farmers were the core factors to the Korean green revolution.
In close collaboration with the agricultural college and IRRI, RDA was able to make use of their talent, facilities and technical information in the process of breeding new varieties. Formation of such a cooperative system has laid a strong foundation on which agricultural technology can be continuously developed. In order to distribute the newly hybridized varieties to farmers as soon as possible, segregation materials were shipped to the Philippines for multiplication during the winter season. The seeds multiplied were immediately flown back to Korea early the next year. By doing so, extensive dissemination of the new varieties become shortened by one year, but rice self-sufficiency was able to be realized earlier than expected.
3. Adaptability of the Korea's experience in Green Revolution to developing countries
The agricultural policies and experiences in achieving the green revolution in Korea are surely helpful to the developing countries which are still suffering from the food shortages in Africa or Asia. Our agricultural system will be rather well applicable to those countries that have small-scaled agricultural systems. The Experiences and knowledge obtained from the innovation of agricultural technology in Korea will be a good model for the developing countries in the world.
The financial resource is also the most important factor for the innovation of agriculture as same in other industrial sectors. There can be suggested two models for the developing countries to achieve the agricultural innovation and to solve the food shortage problem through increase in food production.
The countries that have some capabilities to invest in agricultural sectors are able to build the basis for innovation of agricultural productivity within a short period. Meanwhile, the countries that have no financial resources except agricultural sectors would maximize the financial resources by the mobilization of domestic resource and aids from abroad, and concentrate the resources on some targeted areas within agricultural sectors at first. The targeted areas would be developed and have the competitiveness gradually by implementation of technology enhancement and financial supports. With the successful performance in the targeted areas, advanced technologies and available funds can be shared with the food security areas.
In either case of the two models, governmental investment on agricultural sector with national leader's firm conviction, building the basis of infrastructures for agricultural production, the organization with an efficient operation system for development of new technologies and spread of them rapidly to farm, and the close cooperation system with the related institutions of home and abroad are needed for the successful achievement of green revolution through the expansion of food production. But most of all, farmer's consciousness and national consensus would be prerequisite for achievement of the green revolution.
Korea has 5,000 years of long-standing history, overcoming tremendous invasion by foreign country and trials, created splendid heritage, however, could not free from the shackles of food shortages. Therefore, for Korean to increase the volume of food production was long cherished-wish. Started from the early 1960s, Korea set out National Economic Development Plan which pursues national economy should begin with self-sufficiency in food. Under the strong leadership of president, food self-sufficiency was one of the major challenges of state affairs, so policy to increase food productivity was actively promoted at the government level. As a result of these tireless efforts, Korea could finally achieve 100 % of self-sufficiency in rice which is a main staple in Korea since in the late 1970s. We have achieved the green revolution in Korea by ourselves.
Self-sufficiency in rice has been accomplished with R&D in agricultural sector and new technology transfer system such as increased rice productivity through improved rice varieties and development of cultivation technologies, dissemination new technologies to farmers in a swift manner. All of the factors were harmonized. In addition, these are also possible thanks to firm government policy will and practice on providing rice production infrastructure including facilities, flexible production and supply of rice production materials including fertilizers and chemical pesticides.
In the mid 1970s, there was desperate need to secure investment resources on National Economic Development Plan, the annual per capita income of Korea was 200 dollars to 300 dollars and total export volume was 10 billion dollars, but at this critical juncture, Korea could achieve self-sufficiency in rice. This became a cornerstone to strengthen the basis of national economic development not only for securing food security, boost farm household's income but also for saving foreign currency required to import foreign rice.
The comprehensive work of rice variety improvement was initiated with a systematic collection of native rice varieties and their pure-line selections followed by exotic introductions and their adaptability tests during the early period of 20th century. These were replaced by domestic-bred varieties through hybridization within the traditional temperate japonica varieties since the late 1930s. During 1970s, the indica and japonica types were hybridized and Tongil types were developed with a view to achieve Green Revolution in Korea.
Tongil type is designated from “Tongil”, the first variety developed from a selection from hybridization between indica and japonica in 1971.
It was selected from the progeny of IR667, which was derived by 3-way cross (IR8//Yukara/Taichung Native 1) and released to the farmers in 1972. Afterwards, improved Tongil type varieties like Milyang 23, Geumgang, Raekyeong, etc. were released that rapidly increased the area under their cultivation. The acreage reached 76.2 percent of the total rice area in 1977, resulting in Green Revolution in Korea. Forty varieties of Tongil type rice were developed and cultivated during 1970s and 1980s. Successful cultivation of Tongil type rice varieties opened not only a new milestone for future improvement of rice varieties but also offered a practical opportunity to utilize indica germplasm in temperate environments. Major characteristics of Tongil type rice varieties were short stature in their plant architecture with erect leaves, high yield potential, tolerant to heavy doses of nitrogen and lodging and resistance to major diseases and insect pests, particularly more or less neutral responses to photoperiod and longer period of basic vegetative stage of rice growth. However, there were some shortcomings too such as susceptibility to low temperature, easy shattering of grains and unacceptability of grain quality and palatability to Korean consumers.
The milled rice yield potential of rice varieties that were domestic-bred by hybridization and were first cultivated in the late 1930s, progressed to 4.06~4.57 MT/ha for the leading varieties such as Palkweng, Jinheung and Palgeum by 1970 and greatly increased to 3.3 MT/ha as the national average on the farmers’ field due to improvement of both varieties and cultural practices and to 3.7 million MT/ha for total production. Although productivity of rice varieties increased significantly by the 1960s, it was still behind in meeting self-sufficiency in rice production as a staple food crop in Korea.
The development of “Tongil” rice variety, the first variety derived from indica/japonica hybridization in 1971, lifted up milled rice productivity to 5.13 MT/ha which was 28 percent higher than that of the best japonica rice variety at that time. The productivity of subsequent Tongil type varieties steadily increased to 5.76 MT/ha for Milyang 23 in 1976 and 6.05 MT/ha for Yongmubyeo in 1985. The national average of milled rice yield in the farmer’s field dramatically increased to 4.93 MT/ha ranging 4.37~5.53 MT/ha in 1977 as compared with japonica varieties yielding 3.37~4.69 MT/ha of milled rice. Total rice production reached 4.67 million MT in 1976 which was the first self-sufficiency of rice in Korea, and 5.21 million MT in 1977 and 6.01 million MT in 1978 which was the first time to exceed 5 million MT of rice production in the history, resulting in a significant achievement for green revolution in Korea.
The modern techniques of rice cultural practices were systematically established with hand transplanting after the foundation of the first public organization of agricultural research station in Korea in the early 20th century (1906), and has developed into the present scientific system after the Liberation from Japan in 1945 along with the intensive research works. Particularly, the technology of rice cultural practices has been greatly advanced by the cultivation of Tongil type rice varieties since the early 1970’s because of some different ecological responses from japonica varieties. Tongil type rice varieties showed the relatively longer basic vegetative growth with more or less neutral response to photoperiod as compared with traditional temperate japonica, and needed relatively higher temperature during the growth stage of grain ripening in the Korean situations of climates.
The history of the development in cultural practice technologies for high yield in Korea can be mainly classified as before and after 1970. Between 1950 and 1960s, although high yield techniques for Japonica rice with tall height had been substantially improved, a limit was presented in terms of increasing the actual yield performance in farmers field, resulted in increasing the yield potential of 5 ton per ha when it was first released, which was compared to 3.5 ton per ha of the best japonica.
In phenotypic perspective, Tongil-type rice had an advantage of being close to the ideotype for rice which is counted as an important trait for high yield potential; short-statured and erected-leaf type with heavy-panicle weight, better responses to high nitrogen fertilizer and dense planting, which is securing the number of spikelets per unit area as sink for increasing yield. However, Tongil-type rice carried several disadvantages mainly due to its cold sensitivity derived from Indica germplasm in physiology aspect, as well. These flaws in Tongil-type rice caused discoloration in seedling nursery, growth retard of root age and growth at the early stage of paddy field, and increased infertility caused by spikelet-sterility type cold injury outbreak after a reduction in the division stage, poor ripening from excess number of spikelets in the late ripening stage. In addition, there were difficulties in increasing the yield from the low soil fertility level on the Korean paddy soil. To improve and make up the downsides, the research projects practiced to maximize the four yield components, such as the number of panicles per area, the number of spikelets per panicle, the percentage of ripened grains and 1000 grain weight of brown rice in a balanced manner.
In order to secure the sufficient number of panicles per unit area, it fostered healthy seeding; transplanted proper density; facilitated tillering by applying both basal fertilizer and topdressing at tillering stage; secured the sufficient number of effective tillering to avoid non-productive tiller at the early stage by mid-summer drainage in paddy fields. The technique by which ear manuring and top dressing were applied to paddy fields in a timely manner was developed to increase the percentage of ripened grains for the effective number of grains per panicle. Also, manure, silicate, soil dressing, and deep plowing were applied to enhance the fertility and physical structure of paddy soil. Rice was planted based on a region specific weather condition at a right moment to reduce the risks at natural disasters such as outbreak of disease and insects, lodging, and freezing, since those may occur frequently under the high fertilization and dense planting condition.
By successful disseminating this high yield techniques, from 1973 to 1987, for 15 years, the national average yield on rice for Tongil-type rice surpassed that of Japonica by 17%, 4.71 ton per ha and 4.03 ton per ha respectively. The high yield farm’s productivity (8.94 ton) increased by 2.22 times compared to that of Japonica (4.03 ton), and by 1.9 times higher than that of Tongil-type rice.
Even during 1960s, people experienced a shortage in their food and struggled for poverty and hunger, repeating the spring poverty period periodically. With a cooperation between the government and farmers, they achieved so-called the Green Revolution in 1970s to cope with these problems, overcoming both hunger and poverty from the success in self-sufficiency of staple grains.
The Office of Rural Development (ORD, currently RDA) is an entity where research and extension activities are executed as one organization within the agency so that they can provide new varieties and new technologies to the farmers promptly through 9 Provincial ORD and 150 office of agricultural extension in cities and counties across the country. While they identify any difficulties occurring in the field during the extension activities, those problems are reflected on research activities in the related research institute to solve the problems simultaneously.
Transferring New Techniques was Carried Out for the Tongil-Type Variety at an Individual Farm
Extension specialists from ORD focused on disseminating new technologies to make farmers informed on the newly bred high yield variety, Tongil rice, whose characteristics were quite different from that of tall Japonica species, by themselves and to choose the variety based on their own preferences. The extension specialists provided new technologies on high yield through Saemaul (new village) farm technology education program to farmers, as well as spread the information on new technologies through newspaper, TV, radio, and amplifier broadcast in the village in agricultural- off season in winter.
During the farm season, ORD released forecast information on disease and insect so that farmers respond to the situations adroitly, and agricultural extension specialists at the front line visited farms of which they were in charge to provide field extension and participated in rice production technology support group to solve the problems occurring in the farm field.
Also, they allocated their time for executing each agricultural practice such as workloads movement, rice transplanting and harvesting, deliver of the policy for responsible area of Tongil-type rice, and operating of food increase production situation room to carry out the instruction described in letters, prints, and other media. The competition for high yield was awarded to encourage farmers so that they are motivated to increase productivity. The indirect supports from the administrative such as the rice-saving movement make conserving rice feasible.
By the series of numerous effort and contribution, they could achieve the goal in rice self-sufficiency with availability of new technologies to farmers under "research-extension-dissemination linkage system" from ORD.
In 1977, it was reported that Tongil-type rice took account for 54.6%, which is equivalent to 600,101 ha of the entire farm land since it had been first introduced back in 1971. This effective linkage system was nominated for the best manage system in the world by FAO with 5 other countries such as the U.S. and the Great Britain in 1984.
What Were the Achievements and Impacts of Korea’s Green Revolution
The green revolution was able to achieve not only rice self-sufficiency in Korea but increased farm household income as well. Before 1973, the farm household income was lower than that of the urban worker's household but after achieving production of 30 million seoks of rice in 1974, the farmer surpassed the urban laborer due to the high contribution of the rapidly expanded area of the new rice varieties.
In line with the increase of rice production by means of expanded cultivation of newly developed varieties, the volume of governmental purchases of rice has continuously expanded to a level capable of a steady growth of farmers' earnings along with stimulation of farmers' incentive for increased production.
Rice self-sufficiency has played a great role not only in stabilizing food supplies in Korea but also saving foreign exchange in and contributing to economic growth and strengthening national power enabling confident and active implementation of national policies and creating hope for the future.
The increase of farm household income due to the expanded cultivation of the new rice varieties has played the role not only of increasing farm assets, but also of raising the living quality in rural regions. The increase of farm household income allowed the farmers to lessen the debts and to make funds for re-investment to agriculture.
Increasing rice production resulted in a change in the rice consumption pattern in Korea. Previously rice saving policies prevailed : use of 70% polished rice for cooking, cooking rice mixed with other grains, and prohibition of using rice for brewing, etc. These policies have become obsolete and a rice consumption promotion program has been undertaken.
The expansion of the seed bed technologies brought a number of alternative benefits such as more production due to early transplanting and harvest, the possibility of planting barley in paddy fields after the rice harvest, reducing labor competition during the busy seasons, the careful treatment of rice plants and an expansion of the barley planted area. The earliness of the new rice varieties also enabled the vegetable cultivation in areas near the cities, which contributed greatly to farm management improvement. The group farming in rice cultivation was the momentum for the cooperative production of foundation of joint utilization of farm machinery as well as joint purchase of farm materials and joint marketing of farm products. It played a core role in rural community development by making cooperation possible in every detail of farming.
1. Factors contributing to accelerating the green revolution in Korea
In 1968, Korea succeeded in developing a high-yielding rice variety, later called 'Tongil', and thereafter many varieties with spread of Tongil type varieties to farmers in early 1970s. As a result, Korea attained self-sufficiency in rice, called 'Green Revolution in Korea' in 1977. There were several factors contributed to the green revolution.
① Efficient Breeding system
The success of varietal improvement is greatly rely on the efficiency of the breeding systems for testing and selection of breeding materials. In early 1970s the research institutes covering all the country were set up and functioned well to development of the new rice varieties in Korea.
② International cooperation
In close collaboration with the agricultural college and IRRI, RDA was able to make use of their talent, facilities and technical information in the process of breeding new varieties. Formation of such a cooperative system has laid a strong foundation on which agricultural technology can be continuously developed. In order to distribute the newly hybridized varieties to farmers as soon as possible, segregation materials were shipped to the Philippines for multiplication during the winter season. The seeds multiplied were immediately flown back to Korea early the next year. By doing so, rice self-sufficiency was able to be realized earlier than expected.
③ An exclusive extension services
Farm training in the winter season : Technical farm training was widely conducted during the winter season so that farmers would be able to obtain the technologies for high yield by through understandings of the special traits of the new Tongil type varieties. Since 1971, when the pilot planting was begun, a series of intensive technical farm training sessions were conducted during the winter season for three months from December to March of the following year not only for those farmers who planted the newly developed varieties but also for those who had not yet attempted to grow them.
Farm training by mass media : Farm technical training by means of radio and TV services has been very active and most effective thanks to the cooperation of the radio and TV stations providing time for farm programs.
Accountable field guidances : Field guidance agents persuading farmers to grow the new varieties risked severe criticism when the farmers experienced even a slight crop failure with the new varieties. Therefore, in order to reduce chances of crop failure, they were fully occupied with unceasing field guidance from seedbed preparation through harvest, and even assisted with marketing, as if the farms were their own. It was not unusual for all the research and guidance agents serving across the nation to be unable to enjoy their rightful summer vacation or even Sunday off due to their extraordinarily overwhelming workload. the green revolution is to a great degree ascribable to their noble sacrifice.
Distribution of agricultural information : On each Saturday, a special radio program was issued on the following week's weather forecast, including an outline of the week's farm work and other farm information so that farmers could prepare for the farm works. Information on plant diseases and insect pests was also broadcasted every Friday from March to September.
④ Importance of Leadership
The President, Park, emphasized the achievement of food self-sufficiency through varietal improvement for three years from 1970 to 1972 and also he expected endless efforts from research and extension workers for the development of new varieties and dissemination of new technologies to farmers. He said, for example, "AT first, increase in food production! We import a great deal of food at present time, but we must reduce food import by increasing food production. At least we should achieve self-sufficiency in rice(in the new year`s press conference, 1974)" He showed great concern and gave strong support to achieve the self-sufficiency in rice through the development of new rice varieties and immediate dissemination of them to farmers.
⑤ Governmental strong recommendation and administrative supports
The systematic and unwavering support of the government was most influential factors contributing to the green revolution.
Governmental purchasing policy was a very powerful factor : The government induced growers to adopt Tongil type varieties by setting the government's purchasing prices higher than market prices. Beginning in the early 1970s, the government substantially raised the government price for rice every year. Under the government purchase program, real prices rose 5.7% annually between 1969 and 1979. In line with increases of rice production the volume of government purchases of rice has continuously expanded to a level capable of accommodating as much as farmers wish to sell.
Government's strong recommendation : To enhance the adoption of the new rice varieties, a target level of adoption was assigned to local government officials as well as each extension worker in the provinces. The adoption of Tongil type varieties tied to the officials' and extension workers' ability to get promoted. With strong 'persuasion' from the government, Tongil type rice varieties were planted in 76.2% of all rice cultivated area by 1978.
The administrative support of timely supply of the inputs for rice production : Increases in rice production could not have been obtained except for the timely and sufficient supply of fertilizers, agricultural chemicals, vinyl and other materials for seedbeds.
Prize awards to high yielding farms : As an incentive to induce the adoption of Tongil and Tongil type varieties and to increase their productivity, an award was given to the growers who produced the highest yield. The award was given to all growers whose yields as milled rice were over 6 tons/ha. To those growers, 100,000 won(ca. 250 dollars) was given as a prize. In addition to the awards for individual growers, there was another award for the joint cultivation districts. For the districts whose average yields were the highest in the country, one million won(ca. 2,500 dollars) was awarded, and for those with the second highest yield, 500 thousand won(ca. 1,200 dollars) was awarded.
2. Lessons
Among the factors contributing to the green revolution in Korea, the most influencing factor was the systematic and unwavering support of the Korean government. In particular, the interest of President Park in self-sufficiency in rice is known as influenced greatly to the achievement of green revolution in Korea. From the end of the 1960s to the early 1970s, the industrial development of a few areas on which the government concentrated available financial resources began to lead the industries in the sectors. The agricultural sector was awakened and funded substantially for construction of agricultural infra-structure like as agricultural water resources, irrigation systems, land reclamation, and consolidation of farmland to build the basis for improvement of agricultural productivity. The governmental policies to supply appropriately of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers and agro-chemicals for crop protection from disease and insect pests contributed greatly to the achievement of self-sufficiency in rice.
The Rural Development Administration(RDA) was founded in 1962 for implementation of agricultural policies on development and dissemination of agricultural technology. The fact that RDA had both functions of managing agricultural research works and extension services under one umbrella could make it possible to disseminate very quickly and efficiently the newly developed technologies from the research institutes to farmers and to accept the feedback from the extension services to the related institutes, and to brought the green revolution earlier than expected.
Through breeding a new variety by using a strategy involving a 3-way cross of Indica and Japonica types, which had long been ignored as being of little practical value, a miraculously high-yielding variety, Tongil, has been developed. Since then, several new Tongil type varieties possessing better characteristics, have been continuously developed. The rapid disseminations of the newly developed varieties and improved cultural practices to the farmers were the core factors to the Korean green revolution.
In close collaboration with the agricultural college and IRRI, RDA was able to make use of their talent, facilities and technical information in the process of breeding new varieties. Formation of such a cooperative system has laid a strong foundation on which agricultural technology can be continuously developed. In order to distribute the newly hybridized varieties to farmers as soon as possible, segregation materials were shipped to the Philippines for multiplication during the winter season. The seeds multiplied were immediately flown back to Korea early the next year. By doing so, extensive dissemination of the new varieties become shortened by one year, but rice self-sufficiency was able to be realized earlier than expected.
3. Adaptability of the Korea's experience in Green Revolution to developing countries
The agricultural policies and experiences in achieving the green revolution in Korea are surely helpful to the developing countries which are still suffering from the food shortages in Africa or Asia. Our agricultural system will be rather well applicable to those countries that have small-scaled agricultural systems. The Experiences and knowledge obtained from the innovation of agricultural technology in Korea will be a good model for the developing countries in the world.
The financial resource is also the most important factor for the innovation of agriculture as same in other industrial sectors. There can be suggested two models for the developing countries to achieve the agricultural innovation and to solve the food shortage problem through increase in food production.
The countries that have some capabilities to invest in agricultural sectors are able to build the basis for innovation of agricultural productivity within a short period. Meanwhile, the countries that have no financial resources except agricultural sectors would maximize the financial resources by the mobilization of domestic resource and aids from abroad, and concentrate the resources on some targeted areas within agricultural sectors at first. The targeted areas would be developed and have the competitiveness gradually by implementation of technology enhancement and financial supports. With the successful performance in the targeted areas, advanced technologies and available funds can be shared with the food security areas.
In either case of the two models, governmental investment on agricultural sector with national leader's firm conviction, building the basis of infrastructures for agricultural production, the organization with an efficient operation system for development of new technologies and spread of them rapidly to farm, and the close cooperation system with the related institutions of home and abroad are needed for the successful achievement of green revolution through the expansion of food production. But most of all, farmer's consciousness and national consensus would be prerequisite for achievement of the green revolution.